Posters

Co-Authors:
Michelle Richards, The University of Melbourne
Ian J. McNiven, Monash University
Taungurung Land and Waters Council RAP

This poster presents an exciting result from the analysis of stone tools discovered during the Garden Range 2 excavations on Taunugurung Land and Waters Council RAP Country. We used non-destructive pXRF to geochemically source the excavated artefacts and the historically collected stone artefacts from Taungurung Country in the Museums Victoria collections. We discovered that a source of stone containing platinumforming minerals was favoured for use as grinding stones and hammerstones. The occurrence of these minerals is uncommon across the landscape making it possible to predict likely source locations. This new information allows us to re-construct past exchange systems and social networks in Taungurung Country to understand the activities and importance of the Garden Range 2 rock shelter in the cultural landscape.

Co-Authors:
Duayne Hodges, Mamu Rangers
Francis Joyce, Mamu Rangers
Steve Purcell, Mamu Aboriginal Corporation
Alf Joyce, Mamu Aboriginal Corporation
Shai Ivey, Mamu Rangers
Matt Gillies, Mamu Rangers

Thousands of stone artefacts are held in private collections on the Mamu estate, based around Innisfail, in Far North Queensland. Items in private collections include basalt axe heads, grinding stones and the unusual incised slate grindstones (morahs) and triangular shaped ooyurkas that are not found anywhere else. Our project team includes the Mamu Rangers and an archaeologist, who are guided by Mamu Elders. The project is part of a larger Mamu cultural heritage project funded through the Australian Heritage Grants scheme.

We aim to catalogue artefacts held in these private collections in order to:

• Gain a deeper understanding of how Mamu used the landscape in the past.
• Train Mamu Rangers is stone tool identification and recording.
• Know where the artefacts are held and build relationships with landholders.
• Store the objects appropriately to ensure their long term preservation.

Our preliminary analysis of the private collections has revealed that the artefact collections represent important Mamu camping areas. Most of the artefacts are edge ground axes and grinding stones found on deep basalt plains. The edge ground axes are often broken and were probably discarded. Our project demonstrates the value of private collections over museum or other large collections. For example, farmers can tell us exactly where and how they found the items. This information is added to Mamu’s cultural heritage database.

Co-Authors:
Jessica Baker, Hexos Space Heritage
Jessica Pearson, Hexos Space Heritage

NASA has a wide range of resources available which allow for space enthusiasts and professionals alike to explore previous and current NASA programs and their results through text, audio-visual sources, and increasingly through online interactive resources. This shift is occurring in order to not only increase engagement with NASA resources to validate their creation as a US government entity, but also to meet the increasing interest in space exploration that is coming from the next generation as careers in space continue to become valid options.

HEXOS Space Heritage proposes that these resources are a prime setting to which heritage information can be added, therefore also bringing increasing attention to heritage values and their importance in society, both for space heritage and in general heritage at large. This can influence the quickly growing space sector to consider heritage values in their designs for future offices, labs, and launch sites on Earth, and spacecraft and missions off-Earth.

For our poster, HEXOS Space Heritage has designed several examples of abbreviated significance statements that can easily be integrated into NASA’s pre-existing resources which can educate and inspire audiences who usually are not exposed to heritage narratives.

Co-Authors:
Kelsey Lowe, The University of Queensland
Geraldine Mate, Queensland Museum
Sean Ulm, James Cook University

This research reinstates people in the landscape through archival and archaeological investigations of the Old Smithfield Cemetery: the oldest extant cemetery in the Cairns region. The cemetery was established to service the short-lived township of Smithfield, 1876-1879. Smithfield’s location on the Barron River facilitated the movement of people and goods to the Hodgkinson goldfield via pack tracks and a dray road that traversed the coastal mountain range. During the first year of European settlement at Trinity Bay (1876-1877), Smithfield eclipsed Cairns as the region’s primary commercial centre. Given the township’s former importance, the sparse funerary remains evident today at the Smithfield Cemetery, of one unnamed grave and one nameless re-erected metal grave plaque, prompted the ensuing archival and archaeological investigation of the cemetery. Archival research revealed that 24 people were buried at Smithfield Cemetery between 1877 and 1915, and provided a valuable starting point for researching the township’s little-known inhabitants.

A geophysical investigation of the remaining portion of the original five-acre Smithfield Cemetery was undertaken using a magnetic gradiometer to compare archaeological evidence against the archival record. Fifteen grave-like anomalies were revealed, in addition to the extant grave. The survey’s findings correlate well with the documentary evidence and dispel the previously held belief that only one burial had occurred at the cemetery. Furthermore, this research supports the likelihood that the Old Smithfield Cemetery was the only burial ground in the Smithfield township area at the time of European settlement.

Co-Authors:
Georgia Burnett, EMM Consulting
Laressa Barry, EMM Consulting
Trudy Doelman, The University of Sydney
Zenobia Jacobs, University of Wollongong
Alan Williams, EMM Consulting

The archaeological record of the Tweed-Byron region is dominated by late Holocene exploitation of coastal environments. Indeed, sites such as Seelands rockshelters and Wombah 1 represent some of the earliest archaeological excavations in NSW. However, despite being on a major coastal route for initial peopling of Sahul, there is little evidence of pre-Holocene visitation. Here, we present the results of a compliance-based archaeological excavation at Kingscliff Public School. Excavations consisted of eleven 1.5m3 test pits resulting in the recovery of 76 flaked stone artefacts. These were found in two zones: i) near the surface of a heavily truncated podzolic soil profile dated to the early Holocene (>7,000 years ago), and ii) a sealed layer of a lesser number of silcrete and chalcedony artefacts from depths of 1-1.5 m below surface and correlating with ages of >11,000 years ago. The lower assemblage suggests a small hunting camp on the top of the dune over-looking the surrounding locale.

In combination with recent findings from Minjerribah (Adams et al. 2024), our data hint at a much earlier use of the region, as has always been proposed by the Bundjalung Nation, and with ongoing investigation will further continue to inform the peopling of south eastern Australia.

Co-Authors:
Dennis Amos, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Zaaheer McKenzie, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Aaron Stuart, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Hayden Stuart, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Tristan Stuart, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Aamish Warren, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Leonie Warren, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Angel Walkington, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Stanley Wingfield, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Juliana Chambers, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Neil Brougham, Arabana Aboriginal Corporation
Colin Ahoy, BHP

Humpy, most commonly known as ‘wiltja’ or ’wurley’, is a form of Indigenous temporary dwelling. Early historical records indicate that this dome-shaped structure, often made of locally sourced tree limbs and bark, were widely used by past Indigenous communities during the hot dry season or for shelter while travelling. While humpy was widely identified as a temporary form of dwellings, recent archaeological investigation at two humpy complexes along the Oodnadatta Track (Far North of South Australia) on Arabana Country indicates that these impermanent structures represent a permanent record of cultural interaction between the Arabana people and their Country.

This pilot archaeological mapping project, co-led by Arabana Aboriginal Corporation and BHP Copper South Australia, recorded a total of 15 humpies, across two humpy complexes in Mount Dutton and Edward Creek. The Mount Dutton Humpy Complex is located on a low sand hill surrounded by a chain of six heritage mound springs (~5km radius) while the Edward Creek humpies were erected on a low-land gibber plain next to a creek. The majority of the humpies were made of locally sourced mulga wood. This project is one of the few archaeological projects in far north SA with a special focus on Indigenous land use/dwellings, and these humpy remnants strongly illustrate the resilience and adaptability of past Arabana communities in the arid environment. The antiquity of these humpies is yet to be scientifically determined, but Arabana Elders who were involved in the project indicated that these humpy camps were likely to have been constructed by the end of nineteenth century or early twentieth century, soon after the extension of rail service to Oodnadatta in 1891.

DNA extraction and sequencing technologies are developing rapidly in response to a diversity of genomic applications. For archaeologists, the extraction of DNA from bone has long been used to identify the source of singular sub-fossil remains. Such research has been so successful as to identify a previously unknown Homo species from only a few finger bones. Further, DNA has been uniquely useful in discriminating species and subspecies from non-morphologically-informative remains such as highly damaged or fragmented bone. The development of archaeological microbiome research for pathological investigations has taken the archaeo-genomics space even further, with bacterial and viral DNA being extracted from pathologically interesting sites including dental calculus or pulp, and bone. Combining the aforementioned species-targeted genomics with this microbial research has led to an increased interest in archaeological metagenomics targeting the entire capturable genome of a species and its associated taxa.

Recent innovations of metagenomic screening have included not only the improvement of extraction and sequencing technologies from which traditional genomic approaches have also benefited , but also the downstream technical advancement that has allowed the large quantities of data which are necessary in metagenomics to be managed more easily. There has been a flurry of metagenomic work produced around the world utilising microscopic archaeological substrates such as cave and lake sediments. Archaeological metagenomics has already provided proxies for palaeo-climatic conditions as well as the identification of extinct species and extant taxa which have not left macroscopic remains behind.

Here, I consider the potential uses of metagenomics for archaeologists in Australia with an emphasis on sedimentary substrates.

Co-Authors:
Chris Clarkson, The University of Queensland
I Made Agus Julianto, Udayana University
Anton Ferdianto, University of Wollongong
Jatmiko, National Research and Innovation Agency
Thomas Sutikna, National Research and Innovation Agency

In stone artefact archaeology, flake scar negatives on cores represent an important source of information for understanding how past toolmakers extracted and provisioned lithic utility. To summarise the variability of flake scar patterning among cores, researchers typically employ descriptive categories such as single platform, multiplatform, unidirectional and bidirectional. While these categories can provide a general account of core reduction patterns, their application can be ambiguous due to the three-dimensional complexities of core geometry and the subjective nature of qualitative classifications.

In this paper, we outline a new method for quantifying one aspect of flake scar patterning on cores: the three-dimensional orientation of scar negatives. Using standardised digital and experimentally flint-knapped cores, we demonstrate that statistical techniques from fabric analysis can quantitatively characterise the scar orientation arrangement of cores. Moreover, this method is able to reveal novel variation in the flake scar patterning among informal core types, such as multiplatform cores. When applied to a sample of multiplatform cores from the Homo floresiensis type-site of Liang Bua in Indonesia, we found that the cores made by Homo floresiensis exhibit a greater variation in scar orientation than those made by the modern humans who utilised the site after the disappearance of the extinct hominin. This difference appears to be related to a tendency among the extinct hominins to rotate the cores more frequently during flaking, suggesting a possible divergence in stone knapping practices between the two hominin taxa at Liang Bua.

Overall, our research provides a new quantitative approach to gain new insights into past technological behaviour through stone artefact analysis, and highlights the potential of 3D analysis for advancing the field of archaeological lithic research.

Co-Authors:
Matthias Leopold, The University of Western Australia
Kane Ditchfield, The University of Western Australia
Tom Horrocks, The University of Western Australia
Luke Gliganic, University of Wollongong
Kaitlin Sullivan, The University of Western Australia
Emma Beckett, The University of Western Australia
Jo McDonald, The University of Western Australia

Natural soil processes have the potential to change archaeological contexts, altering artefact distributions and compromising the interpretation of archaeological deposits. One such process is argilliturbation: the movement within a soil profile due to expansion and contraction of the soil during wetting and drying cycles. Argilliturbation occurs in soils containing high proportions of clay minerals that exhibit shrink and swell characteristics (e.g. smectite minerals). Middle Gidley Island, located in the Murujuga rock art province in north western Australia, contains a clay-rich sediment basin and archaeological site that provides an opportunity to investigate the potential impact of argilliturbation on artefacts.

Here we present a pilot study to quantify the movement of lithic artefacts following wetting and drying treatments using the local soil and other contrasting soil textures. The soils used were the Middle Gidley clay-rich soil (MG Soil), a pure quartz sand (S Soil), and a mixed soil (X Soil) comprised of 25% MG and 75% S Soil by weight. We undertook six weekly wetting and drying cycles under controlled laboratory conditions on 30 soil experiment tubs. Each tub contained one of the three soil types and included small, medium or large lithic artefacts, with size categories determined by the size distribution surveyed at the Middle Gidley site. The tubs were imaged using CT-scanning before and after the experiment, and the movement of artefacts was accurately determined using 3D image correlation methods. All artefacts within the MG Soil moved upwards, whereas artefacts within the sand S Soil moved downwards. Movement in the X Soil was varied and less pronounced than in the MG and S Soils. By providing quantitative information on artefact movement in the experiments it may be possible to assess the degree of movement from argilliturbation at Middle Gidley sediment basin and more accurately interpret the archaeological assemblage as found today. The outcomes of this study provide a baseline that can be used to explore more sites that are affected by clay-rich soils.

Co-Authors:
Liam Brady, Flinders University
Tristen Jones, The University of Sydney

Northern Australia/Sahul is home to an astonishing variety of rock arts and expressive media past and present. Much has been written about the role of rock art as part of a ‘colonising repertoire’ of artefacts and strategies deployed by the First People. Further, putative links are made with Pleistocene rock art in Island South East Asia on the basis of, for example, large painted animal motifs. And then the narrative suggests this relatively uniform shared rock art traditions developed and diversified into discrete social signals. But is this the case? What does the evidence say? Rock art is an unusually visible, agentive and theoretically informed entity that helps create, maintain and change people’s relationships with places and other people. The last decade has seen a range of innovative studies dealing with rock art iconography, dating, style and most importantly collaboration with Traditional Owners, some of whom still make and maintain rock art. We propose an overview of this work to identify both broad and specific patterns in the rock art of northern Australia from deep time until today.

Co-Authors:
Victoria Gleeson, Environmental Resource Management

Cultural heritage assessments for renewable energy projects across NSW in 2024 have seen a huge increase in turnover, with dozens of clients and projects applying and vying for approval across the renewable energy zones (REZ). Large swathes of rural NSW are currently under assessment with Local Aboriginal Land Councils LALCs and RAPs scrambling to complete and be part of the consultation process for each project. As such, heritage consultants have the chance to participate in long term heritage projects and grow relationships with LALCs along the way whilst developing long term management plans for the protection or heritage items. As consultants we have therefore faced questioning ourselves: Can the renewable energy projects positively contribute to the discovery of and protection of heritage items? and What promises can clients make to ensuring protection goes beyond the legal obligations?

In this poster we explore one major renewable project located in the south west REZ. We consider its contribution to consulting, the process of early community engagement and consultation, and promises to avoid culturally sensitive sites.

Co-Authors:
Robin Twaddle, BHP
Jessica Olofsson, BHP

Indigenous Peoples’ rights to control, access and retain use of their Indigenous Cultural Intellectual Property (ICIP), including cultural heritage information, stories, objects and images, is not new to the field of archaeology or to the cultural heritage profession. In fact, we in the field of archaeology have often been at the forefront of supporting Indigenous sovereignty and ownership of the past through incorporating oral histories and ethnographies, joint storytelling and co-authorship. However, there are also many examples where we have been living in antiquity ourselves, with Indigenous histories being overlooked or hidden in favour of scientific inquiry, and recognition of understanding the past has been given to the ‘academic’ rather than the owner of the information. Worse, we have shared (whether knowingly or not) confidential, privileged and secret sacred stories without knowledge holders’ consent.

ICIP, which is the rights of Indigenous peoples to control, own, maintain, protect and develop their intellectual property, applies to things like cultural heritage reports, interactive digital media, video footage, photographs, languages, songs, objects, traditional knowledge published stories and academic papers. In an archaeological context, it is likely to be incorporated in some or all of the materials we – as part of the archaeological profession – produce, and as such, data sovereignty needs to apply. This means that as a heritage profession we must understand that ownership of any ICIP will remain with the Traditional Custodians and that they are appropriately attributed for use of their ICIP.

This poster explores case studies, guidelines, cultural protocols or restrictions where we interact with ICIP and Indigenous data sovereignty. Joint understandings and applications of these will provide surety for Indigenous communities. In doing so we can move beyond static archaeological approaches that have been owned and dominated by the scientific community towards a future that celebrates Indigenous sovereignty, recognition and ownership of cultural heritage.

Co-Authors:
Susana Vega Bolivar, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona
Jezabel Pizarro, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona
Jorge Martinez-Moreno, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona
Rafael Mora, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona

Neanderthals were the first extinct human relatives to become known to science and have an iconic significance in human evolution. Recent research has clarified aspects of Neanderthal anatomy, genetics, development and behaviour. The continuous offering of public science documentaries, news articles and publications demonstrate how these hominids still captivate the public.

An unresolved issue in Neanderthal research is the cause of their demise, which is a topic of global significance given the extinction of all other ancient hominins that co-existed with Homo sapiens. Why did anatomically modern humans (AMH) survive while Neanderthals, Denisovans and Homo floresiensis did not? Multi-factor theories propose that climate/environmental change, coupled with small populations and direct dietary competition with AMH led to the extinction of the less capable and adaptable Neanderthals.

This poster presents the ARC funded project Neanderthal hunting ability and the extinction of archaic humans, which examines Neanderthal lifeways to test the assumption that our closest extinct relative was a less adaptable and proficient hunter compared with AMH. By presenting what we know from Neanderthal behaviour in the southeastern Pre-Pyrenees, we provide the background data to interpret our new findings from three archaeological sites: Abric Pizarro, Cova Gran and Roca dels Bous.

Co-Authors:
Delta Lucille Freedman, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Elspeth Hayes, MicroTrace Archaeology
Bobby Mullins, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Ron Jones, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Allan Wandin, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Garrick Hitchcock, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Wendy Morrison, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Zara Lasky-Davison, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Ariana Spencer-Gardner, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Lauren Modra, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Lauren Gribble, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Maria Daikos, Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Cultural Heritage Aboriginal Corporation
Richard Fullagar, Flinders University/The University of Western Australia /La Trobe University
Nathan Jankowski, University of Wollongong
Rebekah Kurpiel, La Trobe University
Matthew Meredith-Williams, La Trobe University
Paul Penzo-Kajewski, La Trobe University
Allison Bruce, La Trobe University
Tracy Martens, La Trobe University
Jamie Rachcoff, La Trobe University

Nearly 50 years ago, David Frankel led an archaeological excavation of one of the enigmatic earth rings on Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung Country in Sunbury, Melbourne. Frankel (1982) identified 166 stone artefacts inside the ring and argued the ring was most likely to be Aboriginal in origin, and possibly ceremonial. Since then, archaeological techniques and consultation protocols have evolved to enable the origins, function, and cultural values of the ring and biik wurrdha (Jacksons Creek) landscape to be further investigated. This presentation brings together the results of a Wurundjeri Woi-wurrung-led study of the cultural values of biik wurrdha, and stone artefacts and estimated age of Sunbury Ring G. The results braid traditional cultural and contemporary archaeological understandings of Sunbury Ring G and the broader biik wurrdha landscape.

Co-Authors:
Amy Prendergast, The University of Melbourne
Jillian Garvey, Dja Dja Wurrung Enterprises/La Trobe University
Jan-Hendrik May, The University of Melbourne
Vladimir Levchenko, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation

Since the 1950s, archaeological research conducted along the lower and central Murray River, on Ngintait, Latji Latji, Barkandji, Yorta Yorta, and Ngaiawang Countries, has relied on radiocarbon dating of freshwater mollusc shell to help confirm the chronology of human occupation in this region as well as support larger models of human occupation timing in Australia. The popularity of freshwater mollusc shell for radiocarbon dating in this region is partially due to the prevalence of shell in a variety of Aboriginal cultural sites.

However, radiocarbon dating of freshwater organisms, such as molluscs, is complex as the carbon reservoir of the water bodies in which they live may differ from atmospheric values. Therefore, radiocarbon dates which do not consider this freshwater reservoir effect may be inaccurate.

While Gillespie and colleagues (2009) investigated the freshwater reservoir effect in the Murray-Darling Basin around Willandra Lakes World Heritage Area, the effect present in the Murray River has yet to be explored. Therefore, this research analysed historically live-collected freshwater mussel samples collected from Ngintait, Latji Latji, Barkandji, Yorta Yorta, and Ngaiawang Countries, near Mildura (VIC), Echuca (VIC), and Morgan (SA), to establish a freshwater reservoir effect for the lower and central Murray River. We also dated modern water and freshwater shell samples from across this region to better understand the source of this offset.

The calculated average offset of approximately 136-56 years will have an impact on chronologically recent sites and improve overall precision. These results will help us improve chronologies in the region and better understand the important relationship between people, molluscs, and Country.

Co-Authors:
Bryce Barker, University of Southern Queensland
Lynley Wallis, Griffith University
Jill Huntley, Griffith University
Cat Morgan, Griffith University
Heather Burke, Flinders University
Gabriella McLay, Griffith University
The Agayrr Bamangay Milbi Project

Collapsed Gallery is a sandstone rockshelter located north east of the town of Laura, south east Cape York Peninsula. Excavated as part of the The Agayrr Bamangay Milbi Project (ABM) in July 2022, the site produced an assemblage that included lithics, faunal remains, shell, and charcoal. The walls of the site also contained abundant rock art which was recorded in detail for the project in mid-2021. Radiocarbon dating produced dates of ~2000 BP, seemingly with a hiatus until ~200 BP. The question then arises as to why the site was seemingly abandoned for 1800 years and why people returned to the site after abandoning it for so long?

Located in the Laura region of south east Cape York Peninsula, Quinkan Country is home to hundreds of rock art sites. As well as hundreds of obvious hand, foot, axe and boomerang stencils, members of the Agayrr Bamangay Milbi (ABM) project have documented numerous unusual stencils whose identity is not immediately obvious. The shapes and dimensions of the unidentified stencils were compared to those of published images of material culture from the region, and also to various Indigenous and historical artefacts on display in Queensland museums. Using this approach, potential object sources for many of the unusual stencils were able to be identified. They were often found to be related to items of European material culture, raising the prospect that such items may have had more cultural, and possibly ceremonial significance, than previously thought.

Co-Authors:
Susan Arthure, Flinders University
Simon Hoad, Flinders University
Martin Polkinghorne, Flinders University
Marc Fairhead, Flinders University

Undergraduate archaeology students often do not see a trowel, or dirt, until their third year of study. In this Experimental Archaeology experiment, we provided an opportunity for first-year students to be immersed in theory, phenomenology, and science… but most importantly, we introduced them to the joy of getting their hands dirty. Students created clay artefacts, and we replicated a Neolithic-era firepit to turn their creations into enduring ceramics. We present a snapshot of our three-year teaching experiment here. Have we changed archaeological teaching at university level? Perhaps – but setting stuff on fire was fun, anyway!

One of the biggest impediments to the analysis of cores in the archaeology of Indigenous Australia is the slippery use of terminology. This impairs comparative analyses and limits our ability to extrapolate meaningful information from our lithic analyses. This situation has resulted from a history of poorly articulated theoretical frameworks. These frameworks impact the way that archaeologists have interpreted the results of lithic analysis, but more fundamentally how they practise lithic analysis. This has led to a situation where the same terminology is used across Australia, but with different meanings depending on the archaeologist who is using it. By quantifying over 500 definitions from almost 200 sources, this poster explores how the use of different theoretical frameworks has resulted in 1) fundamentally different interpretations of the lithic record, and 2) the same terminology for cores being used in subtly but significantly different ways.

Co-Authors:
Daniel Young, Taungurung Land and Waters Council RAP
Michelle Richards, The University of Melbourne

This poster presents our experience of seeing Taungurung Country under the microscope through the petrographic slides prepared by Alan Watchman and Isabel McBryde in the 1970s. This provided us with new perspectives on the geological landscape and provides us a way of understanding how Traditional Knowledge of different geological settings was used by our Ancestors for crafting stone tools and how these locations fit into the broader cultural landscapes across Country. The learnings from this work are helping to build Taungurung-led narratives of past exchange routes and material culture.